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Shells were also formed of other materials, such as felted manilla fibers. To balance the globe, if necessary, a bag of lead shot was inserted inside the shell at the Equator before plastering.

This description deals with globes with paper gores on their outermost surface. The gores were sometimes cut and split to ease their application to the sphere. A circular section called a calotte was prepared to fit over each pole. The first printed maps appeared in the s using copper and wood engraving techniques. A map was intaglio printed on the flat paper gores.

The sections were then wetted and stretched down onto the globe. The number of paper gores used to cover the surface of a sphere ranged from 8 to 36, with 12 being the most common.

Often the globe gores were given a protective coat of varnish. The printed paper on the horizon circle was adhered to a thin layer of gesso and varnished. Usually, the gores and the horizon circle were sized before they were varnished. The composite nature of globes, the hidden intricacies of their internal structures, their sizes if large, and their shape present unique problems. In addition, it was common practice to update and recover the gores because of their utilitarian function.

Paper based boxes have been used to house items such as hats, books, and games. The basic construction of a box and its lid consists of laminated boards stitched or glued together and covered in the interior and exterior with a variety of papers. Some boxes are made from thick, stiff paper that was scored, folded, and glued to form an enclosure, such as a box for a deck of cards. Scoring, folding, rolling, and curling are the basic methods by which the flat plane of a sheet of paper can be shaped into a three-dimensional form.

Adhesives or fasteners may be used to keep the sheet in the distorted form. Examples: Japanese origami; ritual paper facsimiles of clothing, household objects, etc. Strength of the object is determined in part by the properties of the paper used.

Paper folds and curls more easily along the grain. The density of fibers and how tightly they are compacted affects ease of compression for folding. Internal additives like fillers or sizes play a role in how paper responds to deformation, especially in bulky papers of low fiber density. Surface coatings can stiffen paper, making it resist folding or curling, and resulting in flaking of the coating.

The tensile strength of the paper, an indication of how much the paper can stretch before it ruptures, is partially determined by fiber length. Another factor is the stress to which the paper is subjected when curled or folded. In folding, the outer surface must cover a wider radius than the inner surface.

It will be stretched under tension while the inner surface will be compressed. If the stress on the outer surface exceeds the elasticity of the paper, fibers will rupture and the paper will crack Byers , Scoring reduces this problem by stretching or breaking fibers, thus reducing the number of fibers which must be bent.

The strength of a folded paper object is also affected by the integral strength of the geometric form which has been constructed. When properly constructed, pyramid shapes like the cone and the equilateral triangle are the strongest geometric forms. The failure of adhesives and fasteners also contribute to the weakening of three-dimensional paper objects. A writing support used primarily by the ancient Egyptians made of lengthwise strips cut from the soft, white inner pith of the Cyperus Papyrus L reed native to marshy areas of North Africa.

Papyrus was used in the Mediterranean region from perhaps the fourth millennium B. The fabrication technique was lost in the Middle Ages. Strips were probably soaked in water, rolled to soften, laid down to form an overlapping cross-laminated structure, then pressed to bond and dry. There are different theories about what bonds the strips together -added adhesive, natural sap, or physical adhesion. Formed sheets were pasted together to form long rolls. Ancient examples may be firm, smooth, flexible, and translucent and of a fine and even texture; modern products are often heavier and thicker.

A most ancient support for writing and miniature painting, according to Pliny, palm leaf can be archaeologically documented back to the second century A. Palm leaf manuscripts preserve many unique sources of Indian, Nepalese, and Southeast Asian culture and religion. They continue to be used in the twentieth century.

Preferred leaves are those from the Talipot and Palmyra palms which are plicate i. The hard, yet flexible flaps on either side of the rib yield the material that is prepared by drying and polishing for writing or painting or for incising characters using a metal stylus. Known since ancient times and used as a support for writing, painting, drawing and printing, it is made from the skins of animals, especially goats, calves and sheep.

The varieties differ in grain pattern, markings, fat content, thickness, color, and flexibility. Parchment is prepared from pelts i. The result is a stiff, flat, generally opaque sheet. The pelts are not irreversibly tanned with acids, the method used to make leather. Parchment is quite permanent and durable; capable of lasting thousands of years if kept in stable environmental conditions.

The terms vellum and parchment refer to skins which are prepared with lime in exactly the same way. They have had different specific meanings depending upon when and where they were made. The modern British definition of parchment refers to skins made from sheep; vellum to skins made from calf, goat or other animals.

Vellum, in the past, has implied the fine, white skins used for the exquisite Books of Hours, but in modern times it is often used to imply bookbinding weight skins, leaving parchment to refer to the document weight skins. Yet, fine skins are still made from calf, and stiff, thick skins are made from sheep. Thus, the issue of precise terminology is somewhat confusing.

Since it is so difficult to distinguish the animal used to make an early manuscript substrate, a prominent paleographer uses the term parchment for all animals when describing manuscript skins. Hair and flesh sides are terms often used to describe parchment. The hair side i. This is from the treatment of the skin and the shaving action of the knife. The flesh, or inner side, is usually much softer, more absorbent, with a loose, velvety appearance.

When the hair side has been pumiced pounced in preparation for the ink, it is made velvety and thus it is difficult to distinguish hair from flesh sides. If the flesh side has been shaved with a knife and prepared to have a smooth finish, it is also difficult to tell hair and flesh sides apart. The flesh side is generally more receptive to humidity, so the skin will curl in the direction of the hair side. Fabrication: One should become familiar with the preparation of parchment as a basis for understanding its working properties, sensitivities, and limitations.

The basic methods used today are similar to those used in the Middle Ages, but the medieval techniques attained a perfection which has been progressively neglected since the sixteenth century.

Parchment is made from dehaired, limed pelts which are dried at ordinary temperatures under tension and shaved with a semi-circular or lunar knife to desired finish. The wet, limed pelt is stretched on a frame to dry under tension which plays a critical part in the structure of parchment. The fiber network in any pelt is complex, with the fibers running in all directions, giving flexibility to leather. During the simultaneous stretching and drying process to make parchment, however, this fiber orientation is changed to be realigned into layers parallel to the flesh and grain surfaces of the pelt.

This reorganization of fibers is set in this new and highly stretched form by drying the pelt fluid or ground substance a mucous-type secretion to a hard, glue-like condition.

It is this realignment of fibers which produces a taut, stressed sheet which is relatively inelastic and has a stiff handle. It is also the distinguishing factor between parchment and leather, not merely the fact that leathers are tanned. Ancient pelts were sometimes processed into parchment and then also tanned see Reed for more detail. In the West, the surface was sometimes prepared with chalk or similar material to increase opacity and absorbency. Some skins were also given a nappy surface for use with pastels, especially in the eighteenth century.

Soft, velvety, translucent, ivory colored, spongy, paper-like substance not made from rice and not true paper; pith of the Asiatic shrub, Chinese cottonwood Tetrapanax papyrifera Hook Koch , native to hills of South China and Taiwan.

A popular support for Chinese export watercolors from the s on. Technique of manufacture is described by Bell , — The sheet's grain direction is visually obvious.

Aged pith ranges in color from stark white to cream to pale gray. Pith, the tissue in the center of the plant stem, is made up of large food storing and conducting cells parenchyma and collenchyma which are very responsive to moisture.

A paper-like fabric or bark cloth made from the inner bark of the paper mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera and other plants. Produced and used extensively in the Pacific region as a painting and writing surface, for clothing, wall coverings, etc.

Processing includes cutting, soaking, and softening the stalks in water and stripping off the bark. Tapa differs from paper because the fibers retain their original structure and are not disintegrated. The inner bark is sun-dried and stored; for processing into tapa it is soaked in water to soften and then repeatedly beaten and folded until it has increased to many times its original width.

Large tapas are made by pasting, felting, or sewing pieces together. The many ways of decorating tapa are described in the literature. Tapa continues to be manufactured widely. While "linen" as a primary support was required for all United States government contract work in the s, it was widely used as a support for architectural and engineering drawings from circa to when it was replaced by cheaper, durable polyester films.

Drafting cloth was manufactured in Lancashire, England and exported all over the world. The substrate was a linen or cotton fabric and could be bleached, then filled or coated with starch, gelatin or, more recently, synthetic compounds. Sometimes the completed drawing on drafting cloth was coated with lacquer-like coatings, including nitrocellulose, which resulted in a very brittle support. KN A glossy coating on one or both sides created a smooth surface that is translucent rather than fully transparent.

Drafting cloth is seldom used today because of its high cost and limited availability. Also, it was formerly required for deposit with building inspection departments as a permanent copy, but is no longer Lathrop , Stiff but flexible, colorless plastic sheet with a fine, pebbly surface coating that makes it almost opaque and which readily accepts media. One type, Geofilm made by Hughes-Owens, Ltd.

The binder will probably remain stable if the film is stored in conditions recommended for photographs on a polyester base. Any color change that occurred over the years in such a thin layer of binder would probably be imperceptible.

A variety of other synthetic drafting films is available, however, many of which are not as stable as Geofilm. Most have not been chemically analyzed, but spot tests show that some have surface coatings that dissolve readily in many solvents. One such film is Transpagra. The bases of these drafting films may be any of a number of plastics of varying stabilities. Mylar has also been used as a support for drawings as well as architectural renderings. Jasper Johns drew on Mylar and Andy Warhol has done drawings which contain layers of transparent plastic.

Drawings for design items and other industrial products have been done on single sheets and composite pieces of Mylar. BPG Bleaching. AIC Wiki. BPG Backing Removal. BPG Lining. BPG Matting and Framing. Balston, Thomas. Bachmann, Konstanze. Accessed May 26, Banks, Paul. Paris : International Council on Archives. Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Britt, Kenneth W. Handbook of Pulp and Paper Technology: 2nd edition.

Browning, B. Analysis of Paper: 2nd edition, revised and expanded. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Byers, W. Casey, James P. Pulp and Paper: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, 3rd ed. New York : John Wiley and Sons. Clapperton, Robert Henderson and William Henderson. Modern Papermaking. London : The Waverly Book Co. Cohn, Marjorie B. Collings, Thomas and Derek Milner.

Cook, J. Durham : Merrow. Cumberbirch, R. Daniels, Vincent. Daniels, Vincent and Lore E. The Cockling and Curling of Paper in Museums. Ottawa: The Canadian Conservation Institute. Dwan, Antoinette. Ellis, Margaret Holben. The Care of Prints and Drawings. Feller, Robert L. Hills, Richard L. Papermaking in Britain A Short History. London : The Athlone Press. Hunter, Dard. New York : Dover Publications, Inc.

Keyes, Keiko Mizushima. Krill, John. English Artists Paper. London : Trefoil Publications Ltd. Labarre, Emile Joseph. Amsterdam : Swets and Zeitlinger. Long, Paulette, ed. Paper - Art and Technology.

San Francisco : World Print Council. McAusland, Jane and Phillip Stevens. Meder, Joseph. The Mastery of Drawing. Translated and revised by Winslow Ames. New York : Abaris Books, Inc. Miles, Catherine E. Priest, D. London : UKIC. Roberts, Matt T. Washington, DC : Library of Congress. Accessed May 28, Shahani, Chandru J. London : IIC. Weidner, Marilyn. Watrous, James. Wehlte, Kurt. Hon, David N. Lyall, Jan.

Shahani, Chandru. Young, Gregory S. Perkinson, Roy. Samuels, Laurie. Harvard University Art Museums. Identification of Colorants for Paper. Cennini, C. DaVinci, Leonardo. Princeton : Princeton University Press. Richmond, Alison. Parker, A. Prosser, Ruth. Anderson, Priscilla. Paris : ICOM. Fletcher, Shelly and Judy Walsh. Accessed May 29, Futernick, Robert. Mills, John S. Priest, Derek. Rundle, Christopher D.

Wilson, Helen. Yates, Sally Ann. Gould, Barbara. Cohn, Marjorie. Walsh, Judith. Susan E. Stickler, ed. New York : Abbeville Press. Dyson, Anthony. London : Farrand Press. Lalanne, Maxime. A Treatise on Etching. Lumsden, Ernest Stephen. The Art of Etching. New York : Dover. Boston : Little, Brown and Company. Robison, Andrew. Paper in Prints. White, Christopher. London: Zwemmer. Bosch, Gulhar and Guy Petherbridge. Chicago : The Oriental Institute.

Gaur, Albertine. Writing Materials of the East. London : The British Library. Losty, Jeremiah, P. The Art of the Book in India. Snyder, J. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution. Seattle : University of Washington Press. Zhou, Bao Zhong. Barrett, Timothy.

Fletcher, Shelley and Judy Walsh. Accessed June 1, Inaba, Masamitsu and R. Keyes, Keiko. London: IIC. Nicholson, C. Smith, C. Chandler, David. Paris : Centre Culturel du Marais. Gagnier, Richard and Anne Maheux. Jenkins, Penny. King, Antoinette. Norman Brommelle et al. IIC London : Butterworths: — Sugarman, Jane.

Volent, Paula. Entwisle, E. A Literary History of Wallpaper. London : B. Frangiamore, Catherine Lynn. Wallpapers in Historic Preservation. Department of the Interior. Gilmore, Andrea M. Accessed June 2, Greysmith, Brenda. New York : MacMillan. Harroun, Scott G. Bergman, Ed Jablonski, and Christa L. Lynn, Catherine. New York : W. Mapes, Phillipa. McClelland, Nancy V. Philadelphia and London : J. McClintock, T. National Park Service. Nylander, Richard. Bastia is the second largest city by population in Corsica with over 43, inhabitants.

Tourism has not brought much prosperity to the city, and unemployment remains high by French standards. Bastia received its name from a Genoese construction of a "bastiglia" in the s.

Both Bastia and bastiglia are cognates of the English "bastion". Bastia was the principal capital of Genoese Corsica, and it became French only in the late s. The afternoon siesta is a serious daily event in Bastia, and one should be careful to respect shop hours e.

No ferries to Sardinia, these sail from Bonifacio on the south tip of Corsica. The ferries are of uneven quality, even within the same company. They get very busy during the summer, so book early, even if you're just a foot passenger without vehicle or cabin. A clutch of car rental offices can be seen on the streets facing the turnstile exit. They're open M-Sa , none are open Sunday.

The train takes passengers through beautiful valleys and over spectacular passes. As noted in the Corsica page, the locals call it "the shivering one" U Trinighellu for good reason. A tramway runs from Bastia railway station, for some 25 km 16 mi south along the coast to Casamozza, where it connects with the mainline train between Bastia and Ajaccio.

The tram passes within 2 km of Bastia airport, the nearest stop being Lucciana, but there's no connecting link so it hardly works as a means of "Getting in".

It is possible but not pleasant to walk between the two along route D, while route D must be avoided. The sights of Bastia are grouped around the Non-album single.

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